Journal of Emergency Management

Volume 22, Number 5

Journal of Emergency Management — 2024-10-15

September/October 2024

A case study of university mass casualty simulation with high school deaf students who sign

Jody H. Cripps — 2024-10-15

Deaf people who use signed languages are a cultural and linguistic minority. Previous studies involving healthcare and emergency medical service professionals and their interactions with deaf people within the United States and globally have demonstrated a disconnect and lack of trust. The researchers, in this study, explored an emergency preparedness and mass casualty response with deaf people at a university-run mass casualty simulation. Seven culturally deaf high school students from a local deaf school participated in this simulation. Deaf student responses on the survey reflected their experiences involving poor communication skills between health professionals, first responders, and deaf students. By adopting the whole community approach, the students’ experiences reinforce the need to include cultural and linguistic education training led by deaf people to increase communication skills among health professionals and first responders in supporting deaf people in emergencies.

Trends in the use of US federal emergency supplemental appropriations for disasters

Ellen P. Carlin — 2024-10-15

Federal appropriation for disaster prevention through recovery occurs across a complex landscape of funding mechanisms. Emergency supplemental appropriations are one such mechanism and increasingly a way that Congress funds disasters. These bills also often include nondisaster-related spending. To better identify congressional tendencies in the use of emergency appropriations for disasters, including the frequency and dollar value of such spending, we analyzed publicly available data on emergency appropriations over the first two decades of the 21^st century. Using legislative appropriations data from the Congressional Budget Office for all supplemental appropriations enacted for fiscal years 2000 through 2020, we calculated that nondefense spending for disasters via supplemental appropriation represented USD 1.024 trillion in budget authority across 40 bills over this period. Natural disaster emergencies accounted for 58 percent of the federal government’s emergency supplemental spending, with the rest generally related to Global War on Terror and other military activities. Among the spending prompted by presidential request, the difference between how much funding the president had requested for that emergency (if any) and a congressional appropriation of emergency funding reveals no apparent trend over the time period studied, although confirmatory analysis is obscured by a dearth of data points. As the risk of disasters and, particularly, the rate and size of billion-dollar disasters increases, characterizing the congressional approach to the funding of disasters may allow improved understanding of whether this approach is optimized to meet the needs of disasters in the 21^st century and whether response spending should be mitigated through proactive and routine appropriations toward resilience targets.

Emergency Operations Center structures in public offices of emergency management

Peter Loebach — 2024-10-15

Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs) are locations from where activities are conducted in support of emergency incident response, including management of information flows/communications and coordination of strategic decision-making and activities across diverse communities and organizations. To date, knowledge is limited about practices involved in structuring and operating EOCs at public offices of emergency management (OEMs) and influencing factors. Through surveys and analysis of organizational documents, this study examines the models used by OEMs and the factors that influence the choice of models and organizational perception of the effectiveness of the employed models. Our results indicate that the emergency support function (ESF) model is the most commonly used, followed by a hybrid model, the incident command system model, and finally, the departmental structure and incident support model. We found no single model to be decisively superior; rather, different models are appropriate depending on personnel, resource availability, and the context of the jurisdiction. The ESF model, which is the most commonly utilized, appears to be difficult to employ effectively when organizations have limited access to trained personnel necessary for carrying out the range of functions specified in the model. In comparison, other models appear better suited to handle personnel constraints.

Implementation of the Hospital Incident Command System in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States: A systematic review

John D. Jovan — 2024-10-15

Introduction: At the onset of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), many healthcare institutions activated the Hospital Incident Command System (HICS) to manage their pandemic response. The current literature includes numerous case reports describing individual institutional responses. This paper serves to synthesize the various lessons learned published in the current literature.

Methods: This systematic review consists of articles identified by searching three online databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The authors used the search themes “Hospital Incident Command System” and “COVID” to identify articles to screen for inclusion. Finally, 12 articles published between 2020 and July 2022 met the inclusion criteria and were selected for review.

Results: Eight articles (66.7 percent) discussed how the HICS improved communication within their organization. Eight articles (66.7 percent) described unique modifications to the HICS structure that enabled the organization to adapt to the challenges of the pandemic. The flexibility of the HICS allowed each individual organization to modify its structure to best respond to COVID-19. These modifications improved internal communication between hospital leadership, staff, and the community. Implementation of the HICS helped organizations to streamline communication by preventing information overload.

Conclusion: In conclusion, the HICS provided healthcare institutions with a flexible structure to effectively tailor their emergency response to the unique challenges within their institution and the local community during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Disaster risk tolerance and the resilience paradox: Are we asking the right questions?

Ronda Nowak — 2024-10-15

Resilience is a complex concept. In the emergency management community, it is commonly used as a synonym for reduced risk. However, research demonstrates that reducing risk is not required for resilience. Research also finds that risk perception, widely viewed as the driver of increased resilience, is a weak predictor of risk reduction action. This article explores the concept of disaster risk tolerance (DRT). DRT is proposed as a better lens for understanding decisions made around risk reduction and as providing a better understanding of the role of resilience. The article also looks at the role of key factors, such as social identity and efficacy, in DRT. It makes recommendations for better risk communication based on these understandings.

A qualitative analysis of the effects of the COVID-19 response on low-income residents in Cameron County, Texas: Lessons for future pandemic response

Christine Crudo Blackburn — 2024-10-15

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic had dramatic impacts throughout the United States (US). In Cameron County, Texas, along the Texas–Mexico border, the impacts of the virus were felt more severely than in most places in the US. Residents of the county, which has high rates of poverty, many multigenerational households, high levels of underlying conditions, and an uninsured population of almost 30 percent, were not only poised to be affected by the virus but also by the response policies put in place to contain it.

This study seeks to add to the literature by examining the lived experiences of low-income individuals in Cameron County, Texas, as it relates to the COVID-19 response and their experiences with the response. To do this, we asked: How did the COVID-19 response affect low-income residents in Cameron County, Texas?

United front: Emergency management managers, public health, and infection prevention

Doriann Prasek — 2024-10-15

Introduction: Response to infectious diseases-related events may present a challenge to cooperative disaster management and emergency preparedness strategies. The primary objective of this investigation was to identify areas of strength and areas needing improvement in emergency management (EM) coordination between public health (PH) and infection prevention (IP) officials during disasters. A secondary objective was to evaluate education and training among EM, PH, and IP as they relate to increasing the number of mutually supportive relationships.

Methods: An eight-question survey was conducted among individuals working in New Jersey with responsibilities in PH, EM, and IP to identify themes and the current state of collaboration.

Results: The results of this survey suggested that more dedicated personnel in EM are needed for effective health system disaster planning.

Conclusion: Stronger disaster response action plans can only be achieved through improvements in collaboration among stakeholders in EM, PH, and IP. These partnerships are essential to control disease transmission and protect the public from preventable harm.

What’s next for the disaster profession? A study of the opinions of local and state emergency managers and their recommendations for a more resilient future

David A. McEntire — 2024-10-15

The objective of this article is to understand how emergency managers view the status of their emergency management programs and identify suggestions on how to improve this important profession in the future. This article first explores the hazards, vulnerabilities, and associated disasters confronting select jurisdictions in Federal Emergency Management Agency Region VIII. It then explains recent experiences of responding to the coronavirus disease 2019, the 2020 protests/riots, the Magna earthquake, and the Marshall Fire. The article also mentions the relative priority given to preparedness and mitigation and recovery activities, and it discusses common challenges and weaknesses emergency managers face. The article then concludes with a discussion of current activities as well as concerns and recommendations for the future.

Beirut 2020 explosion and health system response: An alarm for the dangerous consequences of Natech incidents in industrial cities

Roya Alimoradzadeh — 2024-10-15

The blast on August 4, 2020, which destroyed main parts of the Port of Beirut, was one of the largest chemical explosions in history. This incident is considered one of the events of the Natural Hazards Triggering Technological Accidents (Natech) group, which is accompanied by explosion, fire, and leakage of gaseous toxic materials.

Volume 22, Number 4

Journal of Emergency Management — 2024-08-01

July/August 2024

A Disaster Response Complex for training of emergency responders in the Northwest United States

Kathryn Hogarth — 2024-08-01

The Disaster Response Complex (DRC) is a year-round training complex that specializes in training emergency responders in realistic indoor and outdoor environments. The outdoor site is comprised of 3 acres of secured customizable space for various exercises. The indoor site is designed to include an indoor facility with a full-size city street, complete with storefronts and motor vehicles that can be configured for emergency response training exercises, and a train or subway station where mockups of derailments can be simulated. The DRC includes large parking areas to accommodate multiple vehicles, allowing trainees the space needed to set up equipment and tactical operations. In addition, a campus office space is also available for an off-site operations center.

Pipeline emergency preparedness in Nebraska: Identifying interagency preparedness gaps and proposing solutions

Kylie Johnson — 2024-08-01

In Nebraska, there are over 28,000 miles of pipelines that carry various materials, which could impact human health and the natural environment in the event of a leak or spill. Nebraska is heavily reliant on its expansive groundwater supply from the large High Plains aquifer system as well as smaller secondary aquifers. Eighty-eight percent of Nebraska’s population utilizes groundwater for personal use, and the state’s agricultural sector depends on it for irrigation and livestock care. The ongoing challenges facing the implementation of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline system inspired researchers to examine the current state of pipeline emergency preparedness in Nebraska. To do this, a pipeline emergency preparedness workshop was held in November 2021 in Norfolk, Nebraska. Conference participants included county- and regional-level leadership, local public health departments, tribal representatives, and other organizations. Pipeline emergency responders and other stakeholders were invited to listen to plenary presentations about inland oil spill responses and the current state of Nebraska pipelines and to participate in a facilitated discussion identifying pipeline response challenges and potential solutions.

Through a facilitated discussion process, participants identified six general response challenge categories and 24 potential solutions. From those 24 solutions, three were selected as easily implementable solutions—increased joint/coordinated planning, increased pipeline emergency exercising, and increased pipeline emergency training/education. Implementing this work will assist in reducing health risks associated with potential spills.

Guardian of society: Civil society in Nigeria’s response to COVID-19 pandemic

Solomon I. Ifejika — 2024-08-01

The rapid breakout and dissemination of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection from the city of Wuhan, China, to the rest of the countries of the world in December 2019 triggered a situation that led the World Health Organization to report it as a global public health emergency. The pandemic resulted in abrupt and significant loss of lives, disruption of economies, loss of livelihoods, and severe hardship across the nations of the world. Nigeria encountered the COVID-19 reality following the discovery of the first case of the infection in the country on February 27, 2020, prompting the government to swing into action to contain its spread. However, the government’s response to the pandemic benefited from the support of nonstate actors from the profit and nonprofit sectors. This study, thus, specifically examined the role of civil society organizations (CSOs) in Nigeria’s response to the coronavirus crisis. Using data obtained through secondary sources and analysis of thematic and descriptive-interpretive methods, the study found that CSOs impressively contributed to the government’s fight against COVID-19, particularly in view of their roles in creating awareness about the virus and rebutting disinformation regarding the disease, among others. Yet, CSOs encountered some problems while undertaking these roles, prominently the closure of the civic space, noninclusion of CSOs in government’s pandemic response architecture, and loss of funding. The study recommends, among other things, that in the case of any future public health emergencies of COVID-19 magnitude, the Nigerian Government should make CSOs an integral part of its response structure, while concluding that the application of these measures would incentivize better contributions from CSOs.

Live agent training as an important process safety measure to strengthen resilience in hazardous (CBRN) work situations

Alexander Stolar — 2024-08-01

Various occupational groups as well as emergency responders are important human factors in combating incidents and emergencies in a broad range. Negative deviations from a process-safe condition should be detected and transformed into a safer condition to prevent negative consequences. Therefore, training and education of personnel is an important measure in this case as well as a major influencing factor on the vulnerability to errors during operations and their resilience. From lack of training to incorrect execution due to excessive stress, fear, or unfamiliar situations, it is important to counteract this with targeted training under conditions that are as close to reality as reasonably achievable. Realistic training situations involving live agents allow to recognize mistakes or inadequacies not only in personnel but also in material or in mission planning and to create a more effective working environment. Many violations of work guidelines are due to well-intentioned deviations from nonexecutable standard operation procedures that have never been tested. Repeated, progressive training under real hazardous conditions can help to strengthen mission readiness and resilience of teams. It better prepares them for their dangerous activities.

Analyzing the impact of concealed carry weapons and school resource officers on school shootings: An agent-based modeling approach

Nicholas B. Harrell — 2024-08-01

This paper presents a simulation modeling study that examines the potential benefit of arming public school staff members with concealed carry weapons (CCWs) in combination with school resource officers (SROs) during active shooter events. By simulating real or hypothetical situations and altering various parameters, simulation modeling allows researchers to explore the potential factors that may influence the outcome of such situations. This study will analyze literature on active shootings to identify key characteristics that may impact the outcome of an event and will use an actual school active shooter event as a basis for developing a simulation model. The researchers will then introduce a CCW carrier and an SRO into the scenario to assess the potential impact and outcomes of such a change. The results of this study may inform the development of effective policies and procedures for addressing active shooter events in public settings.

Weather radar utility in hazard detection and response

Michael J. Benson — 2024-08-01

Publicly accessible weather radar data have significant capabilities for meteorological measurements and predictions and, further, have the potential to measure nonmeteorological events that include smoke, ash, and debris plumes as well as explosions. The ability to identify and track nonmeteorological events can be of assistance in emergency response, hazard mitigation, and related activities in locations where radar coverage both exists and is recorded and accessible to the user. In this study, events from multiple locations in the United States that are reported in news outlets are assessed using a manual inspection process of Level 2 weather radar data to identify anthropogenic and nonbiological returns. Explosive events are also identified, and a large high-altitude debris cloud from the intentional destruction of the SpaceX Starship is tracked across a wide area. Finally, future efforts using a machine learning model are discussed as a means of automating the process and potentially enabling near-real-time nonmeteorological event identification in the same areas where the data are accessible. Using weather radar data can be a valuable new tool for Department of Defense systems to aid in military awareness, and for interagency emergency response and forensic mission experts to consider national weather service data in their mission profiles. Radar data can be effective in detecting several common types of emergencies and inform and aid response personnel.

Volume 22, Number 3

Journal of Emergency Management — 2024-05-01

May/June 2024

Measuring mental health outcomes in Walbridge Fire 2020

Laura McCombs — 2024-05-01

In August 2020, Sonoma County experienced the Walbridge Fire (part of the Lake–Napa Unit Complex Fire). Following the repopulation of evacuated residents, the Sonoma County Department of Emergency Management circulated a Resident Experience Survey to learn from stakeholders how the fire impacted their lives, how emergency response to the fire met their needs, and to gather information to improve future disaster response activities. A total of 1,583 English and 55 Spanish surveys were completed. This paper describes a mixed-method research using survey data to understand broader mental health implications of the Walbridge Fire on residents. This study developed a quantitative Global Worry Model to explore which survey factors contributed to poorer mental health outcomes. Quantitative analytics looked at how language, loss, emergency alerts, and family size were measured for significance with a survey reported on a mental health questionnaire. Open-ended survey responses surrounding previous disaster experience, pre-existing health issues, and environmental conditions (smoke and the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic) were contributory to responder’s stress and anxiety. Final data analysis concluded that those who faced immediate loss presented with significant self-declared stress and anxiety.

Decision-making drivers for pandemic response for Institutions of Higher Education

Rebecca Morgenstern Brenner — 2024-05-01

The purpose of this research is to identify how decision-makers within anchor institutions, using the context of higher education, determine the course of action in response to an improbable disaster event, such as the recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. A survey was conducted among higher education decision-makers during spring 2020 at the moment they were adapting to COVID-19. The survey aimed to identify policies and planning measures that may help Institutions of Higher Education learn from this experience to maintain continuity of operations should similar or unanticipated events occur in the future. With this knowledge, both assets and detriments contributing to community vulnerability can be better balanced to inform decision-making. The outcomes of the analysis and shared reflections inform the development of future policy and strengthen existing processes for preparedness and mitigation planning for unexpected events.