Short-term healthcare resource utilization associated with receipt of CDC-informed opioid thresholds among commercially insured new chronic opioid users

Authors

  • Martin J. Calabrese, PharmD, PhD https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4304-396X
  • Fadia T. Shaya, PhD, MPH
  • Francis Palumbo, PhD, JD
  • Mary Lynn McPherson, PharmD, PhD, BCPS
  • Ester Villalonga-Olives, PhD, MSc
  • Zafar Zafari, MSc, PhD
  • Ryan Mutter, PhD

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5055/jom.0848

Keywords:

chronic opioid use, prescription opioids, healthcare utilization, outcomes

Abstract

Objective: To evaluate the impact of recent changes to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) morphine milligram equivalent (MME)/day threshold recommendations on healthcare utilization.

Design: A retrospective cohort study of new chronic opioid users (NCOUs).

Setting: Commercially insured plans across the United States using IQVIA PharMetrics® Plus for Academics database with new use between January 2014 and March 2015.

Patients: NCOUs with 60-day coverage of opioids within a 90-day period with 30-day opioid-free period prior to the date of the first qualifying opioid prescription.

Interventions: NCOU categorized by the CDC three-tiered risk-based average MME/day thresholds: low (>0 to <50), medium (50 to <90), and high (90).

Main outcome measures: Multivariable logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds of incurring an acute care encounter (ACE) (all-cause and opioid related) between the thresholds (adjusted odds, 95 percent confidence interval).

Results: In adjusted analyses, when compared to low threshold, there was no difference in the odds of all-cause ACE across the medium (1.01, 0.94-1.28) and high (1.01, 0.84-1.22) thresholds. When compared to low threshold, a statistically insignificant increase was observed when evaluating opioid-related ACE among medium (1.86, 0.86-4.02) and high (1.51, 0.65-3.52) thresholds.

Conclusions: There was no difference in odds of an all-cause or opioid-related ACE associated with the thresholds. Early-intervention programs and policies exploring reduction of MME/day among NCOUs may not result in short-term reduction in all-cause or opioid-related ACEs. Further assessment of potential long-term reduction in ACEs among this cohort may be insightful.

 

Author Biographies

Martin J. Calabrese, PharmD, PhD

Department of Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research, University of Maryland Baltimore School of Pharmacy; Center for Medicare, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, Maryland

Fadia T. Shaya, PhD, MPH

Professor, Department of Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research, University of Maryland Baltimore School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland

Francis Palumbo, PhD, JD

Professor, Department of Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research, University of Maryland Baltimore School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland

Mary Lynn McPherson, PharmD, PhD, BCPS

Professor, Department of Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research, University of Maryland Baltimore School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland

Ester Villalonga-Olives, PhD, MSc

Assistant, Department of Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research, University of Maryland Baltimore School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland

Zafar Zafari, MSc, PhD

Assistant, Department of Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research, University of Maryland Baltimore School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland

Ryan Mutter, PhD

Congressional Budget Office, Health Analysis Division, Washington, DC

References

Dowell D: CDC Clinical Practice Guideline for prescribing opioids for pain—United States, 2022. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2022; 71: 1-95. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.rr7103a1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr7103a1

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC guideline for prescribing opioids for chronic pain—United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; 65. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er

Dowell D, Haegerich T, Chou R: No shortcuts to safer opioid prescribing. N Engl J Med. 2019; 380(24): 2285-2287. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMp1904190. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1904190

McPherson ML: Demystifying opioid conversion calculations: A guide for effective dosing—NLM Catalog-NCBI. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/101509913. Accessed August 28, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37573/9781585284306

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Quality Improvement and Care Coordination: Implementing the CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain. 2018. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Unintentional Injury Prevention.

Shen Y, Bhagwandass H, Branchcomb T, et al.: Chronic opioid therapy: A scoping literature review on evolving clinical and scientific definitions. J Pain. 2021; 22(3): 246-262. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2020.09.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2020.09.002

IMS HEALTH: Pharmetrics plus data dictionary. 2013. Available at https://tri.uams.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/80/2015/08/Pharmetrics-Plus-Data-Dictionary-Jan-2013.pdf. Accessed August 28, 2019.

Quinn PD, Hur K, Chang Z, et al.: Incident and long-term opioid therapy among patients with psychiatric conditions and medications: A national study of commercial healthcare claims. Pain. 2017; 158(1): 140-148. DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000730. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000730

Jeffery MM, Hooten WM, Henk HJ, et al.: Trends in opioid use in commercially insured and Medicare advantage populations in 2007-16: Retrospective cohort study. BMJ. 2018; 362: K2833. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.k2833. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2833

Davis CS, Pierce M, Dasgupta N: Evolution and convergence of state laws governing controlled substance prescription monitoring programs, 1998-2011. Am J Public Health. 2014; 104(8): 1389-1395. DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2014.301923. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.301923

Simoni-Wastila GEL: Prescription monitoring programs: Striking the balance between medical use and diversion. J Addict Nurs. 2011; 22(1-2): 77-82. DOI: 10.3109/10884602.2011.551586. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/10884602.2011.551586

National Center for Injury Prevention and Control: CDC compilation of benzodiazepines, muscle relaxants, stimulants, zolpidem, and opioid analgesics with oral morphine milligram equivalent conversion factors, 2017 version. 2017. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/resources/data.html. Accessed June 21, 2021.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): Methadone. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/medications-counseling-relatedconditions/methadone. Accessed December 20, 2021.

Olopoenia A, Onukwugha E, Simoni-Wastila L, et al.: Patterns of prescription opioid utilization among adolescents and adults with comorbid chronic pain and mental health diagnosis. Pain. 2020; 161(10): 2299-2307. DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001934. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001934

Mosher HJ, Jiang L, Vaughan Sarrazin MS, et al.: Prevalence and characteristics of hospitalized adults on chronic opioid therapy. J Hosp Med. 2014; 9(2): 82-87. DOI: 10.1002/jhm.2113. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jhm.2113

Calcaterra SL, Scarbro S, Hull ML, et al.: Prediction of future chronic opioid use among hospitalized patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2018; 33(6): 898-905. DOI: 10.1007/s11606-018-4335-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-018-4335-8

Blanchard J, Weiss AJ, Barrett ML, et al.: Readmissions following inpatient treatment for opioid-related conditions. Subs Use Misuse. 2019; 54(3): 473-481. DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2018.1517174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2018.1517174

Haffajee RL, Mello MM, Zhang F, et al.: Four states with robust Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs reduced opioid dosages. Health Affairs. 2018; 37(6): 964-974. DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2017.1321.

Haffajee RL, Mello MM, Zhang F, et al.: States with overall robust Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs experienced reductions in opioids prescribed to commercially-insured individuals. Health Aff (Millwood). 2018; 37(6): 964-974. DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2017.1321. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2017.1321

Liang D, Bao Y, Wallace M, et al.: Medical cannabis legalization and opioid prescriptions: Evidence on US Medicaid enrollees during 1993–2014. Addiction. 2018; 113(11): 2060-2070. DOI: 10.1111/add.14382. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14382

Hoppe D, Karimi L, Khalil H: Mapping the research addressing Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs: A scoping review. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2022; 41: 803-817. DOI: 10.1111/dar.13431. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13431

Melfi C, Holleman E, Arthur D, et al.: Selecting a patient characteristics index for the prediction of medical outcomes using administrative claims data. J Clin Epidemiol. 1995; 48(7): 917-926. DOI: 10.1016/0895-4356(94)00202-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0895-4356(94)00202-2

Sutradhar R, Lokku A, Barbera L: Cancer survivorship and opioid prescribing rates: A population-based matched cohort study among individuals with and without a history of cancer. Cancer. 2017; 123(21): 4286-4293. DOI: 10.1002/cncr.30839. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.30839

Kobus AM, Smith DH, Morasco BJ, et al.: Correlates of higher-dose opioid medication use for low back pain in primary care. J Pain. 2012; 13(11): 1131-1138. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2012.09.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2012.09.003

Gureje O, Von Korff M, Simon GE, et al.: Persistent pain and well-being: A World Health Organization study in primary care. JAMA. 1998; 280(2): 147. DOI: 10.1001/jama.280.2.147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.2.147

Owen-Smith A, Stewart C, Sesay MM, et al.: Chronic pain diagnoses and opioid dispensings among insured individuals with serious mental illness. BMC Psychiatry. 2020; 20(1): 40. DOI: 10.1186/s12888-020-2456-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2456-1

Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Devries A, et al.: Trends in use of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain among individuals with mental health and substance use disorders: The TROUP study. Clin J Pain. 2010; 26(1): 1-8. DOI: 10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181b99f35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181b99f35

Hunnicutt JN, Baek J, Alcusky M, et al.: Geographic variation in the initiation of commonly used opioids and dosage strength in United States nursing homes. Med Care. 2018; 56(10): 847-854. DOI: 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000972. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000972

Haymond S, Nagpal G, Heiman H: Urine drug screens to monitor opioid use for managing chronic pain. JAMA. 2017; 318(11): 1061-1062. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2017.10593. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.10593

Majestic M: Opioid potentiators memo. 2018. Available at https://mmp.michigancompletehealth.com/content/dam/centene/michigan-complete-health/pdfs/Opioid_Potentiators_Memo.pdf. Accessed April 21, 2020.

Vijay A, Ross JS, Shah ND, et al.: Medicare formulary coverage and restrictions for opioid potentiators from 2013 to 2017. J Gen Intern Med. 2019; 34(4): 518-520. DOI: 10.1007/s11606-018-4752-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-018-4752-8

Nielsen S, Lintzeris N, Bruno R, et al.: Benzodiazepine use among chronic pain patients prescribed opioids: Associations with pain, physical and mental health, and health service utilization. Pain Med. 2015; 16(2): 356-366. DOI: 10.1111/pme.12594. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12594

Bruner A, Bokhari A, Fishman M: Opioids and sedative-hypnotics. In Clinical Handbook of Adolescent Addiction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2013: 223-236. DOI: 10.1002/9781118340851.ch22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118340851.ch22

Garg RK, Fulton-Kehoe D, Franklin GM: Patterns of opioid use and risk of opioid overdose death among Medicaid patients. Med Care. 2017; 55(7): 661-668. DOI: 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000738. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000738

Larochelle MR, Zhang F, Ross-Degnan D, et al.: Trends in opioid prescribing and co-prescribing of sedative hypnotics for acute and chronic musculoskeletal pain: 2001–2010. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2015; 24(8): 885-892. DOI: 10.1002/pds.3776. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.3776

Peckham AM, Fairman KA, Sclar DA: All-cause and drug-related medical events associated with overuse of gabapentin and/or opioid medications: A retrospective cohort analysis of a commercially insured US population. Drug Saf. 2018; 41(2): 213-228. DOI: 10.1007/s40264-017-0595-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40264-017-0595-1

Eckhardt K, Ammon S, Hofmann U, et al.: Gabapentin enhances the analgesic effect of morphine in healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg. 2000; 91(1): 185-191. DOI: 10.1213/00000539-200007000-00035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-200007000-00035

Corey P, Heck AM, Weathermon RA: Amphetamines to counteract opioid-induced sedation. Ann Pharmacother. 1999; 33(12): 1362-1366. DOI: 10.1345/aph.19024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.19024

Ciccarone D: The rise of illicit fentanyls, stimulants and the fourth wave of the opioid overdose crisis. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021; 34(4): 344-350. DOI: 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000717. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000717

Diehr P, Yanez D, Ash A, et al.: Methods for analyzing health care utilization and costs. Annu Rev Public Health. 1999; 20: 125-144. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.20.1.125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.20.1.125

Onukwugha E, Bergtold J, Jain R: A primer on marginal effects—Part I: Theory and formulae. PharmacoEconomics. 2015; 33(1): 25-30. DOI: 10.1007/s40273-014-0210-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40273-014-0210-6

Onukwugha E, Bergtold J, Jain R: A primer on marginal effects—Part II: Health services research applications. PharmacoEconomics. 2015; 33(2): 97-103. DOI: 10.1007/s40273-014-0224-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40273-014-0224-0

Mojtabai R: National trends in long-term use of prescription opioids. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2018; 27(5): 526-534. DOI: 10.1002/pds.4278. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.4278

Florence CS, Zhou C, Luo F, et al.: The economic burden of prescription opioid overdose, abuse, and dependence in the United States, 2013. Medical Care. 2016; 54(10): 901-906. DOI: 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000625. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000625

Florence C, Luo F, Rice K: The economic burden of opioid use disorder and fatal opioid overdose in the United States, 2017. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021; 218: 108350. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108350

Published

02/08/2024

How to Cite

Calabrese, M. J., F. T. Shaya, F. Palumbo, M. L. McPherson, E. Villalonga-Olives, Z. Zafari, and R. Mutter. “Short-Term Healthcare Resource Utilization Associated With Receipt of CDC-Informed Opioid Thresholds Among Commercially Insured New Chronic Opioid Users”. Journal of Opioid Management, vol. 20, no. 1, Feb. 2024, pp. 31-50, doi:10.5055/jom.0848.

Similar Articles

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.