Trauma among emergency responders and terrorism investigators: Suggestions for conducting needed research

Thomas J. Friedman, JD

doi:10.5055/jem.2006.0031

Authors

Thomas J. Friedman, JD

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.2006.0031

Keywords:

emergency responders, terrorism investigators, acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder

Abstract

This article discusses the paucity of information that exists concerning the traumas and stresses that affect emergency responders (ERs) and terrorism investigators (TIs). There has not yet been an indepth, phenomenological, qualitative study examining the perceptions of ERs or TIs during and after emergency incidents to determine whether their experiences led to serious stress or trauma.
More research is needed concerning the work experiences of these individuals, which is often dangerous, sometimes taking place in horrific settings, and often occurring in high pressure and high profile situations. We do not know why some ERs and TIs are traumatized by their experiences and others are not. We do not know why some are able to cope with their various stressors in a healthy manner when others develop symptoms clearly indicative of acute stress disorder (ASD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We are not certain to what degree the severity of the trauma experienced directly affects the severity of these symptoms, and we have not studied the resultant ability or inability of ERs and TIs to continue to work and interact with family and friends.
By conducting additional studies on this topic, ERs and TIs can be taught better coping mechanisms, we can establish more proactive professional mental health responses, gain a more empathetic understanding of ERs and TIs, and help emergency and law enforcement organizations prepare more effective educational and training materials.

Author Biography

Thomas J. Friedman, JD

Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice, Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Tallahassee, Florida

References

Mather R, Marsden J: Trauma and temporality. Theory and Psychology. 2004; 14(2): 206. Sprang G: Post-disaster stress following the Oklahoma City bombing, an examination of three community groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 1999; 14(2): 171. Van Patten IT, Burke TW: Critical incident stress and the child homicide investigator. Homicide Studies. 2001; 5(2): 132. Foa EB, Davidson RT, Frances A (eds): Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder, the expert consensus guideline series. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1999; 60(Supp. 16): 1-76. Sciancolepore R, Motta RW: Gender related correlates of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a WTC tragedy sample. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2004; 6(1): 15.

Kirz JL, Drescher KD, Klein JL, et al.: MMPI-2 Assessment of differential post-traumatic stress disorder patterns in combat veterans and sexual assault victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2001; 16(7): 619-639. Sigafoos CE: A PTSD treatment program for combat (Vietnam) veterans in prison. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 1994; 38(2): 117-129. Becker-Blease KA, Freyd JJ: Beyond PTDS. An evolving relationship between trauma theory and family violence research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(4): 404. Kozaric-Kovacic D, Breovecki A: Prevalence of psychotic comorbidity in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine. 2005; 170(3): 223-226. Mather R, Marsden J.: Trauma and temporality. Theory and Psychology. 2004; 14(2): 208.

Akbayrak MN, Olfaz O, Ozcan T, et al.: Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among military health professionals in Turkey. Military Medicine. 2005; 170(2), p. 125-129.

Smith RP, Katz CL, Holmes A, et al.: Journal of the American Medical Association. 2005; 293(1): 30-31.

Sprang G: Post-disaster stress following the Oklahoma City bombing, an examination of three community groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 1999; 14(2): 171.

Mather R, Marsden J: Trauma and temporality. Theory and Psychology. 2004; 14(2): 207.

Mather R, Marsden J: Trauma and temporality. Theory and Psychology. 2004; 14(2): 209. MacIntosh HB, Whiffen VE: Twenty years of progress in the study of trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(4), 488-491.

Van Patten, I. T., & Burke, T. W.: Critical incident stress and the child homicide investigator. Homicide Studies. 2001; 5(2): 131-132.

Van Patten IT, Burke TW: Critical incident stress and the child homicide investigator. Homicide Studies. 2001; 5(2): 131-132.

Foa EB, Davidson RT, Frances A (eds): Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder, the expert consensus guideline series. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1999; 60(Supp. 16): 11. Flouri E: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. What we have learned and what we still have not found out. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(4): 373.

Akbayrak MN, Olfaz O, Ozcan T, et al.: Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among military health professionals in Turkey. Military Medicine. 2005; 170(2): 127. Flouri E: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. What we have learned and what we still have not found out. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(4): 374-375. Scurfield RM: Commentary about the terrorist acts of September 11, 2001. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 2002; 3(1): 3-7. Van Patten IT, Burke TW: Critical incident stress and the child homicide investigator. Homicide Studies. 2001; 5(2): 131-132.

Foa EB, Davidson RT, Frances A (eds): Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder, the expert consensus guideline series. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1999; 60(Supp. 16): 1-76.

Aaron JD: Stress and Coping in Police Officers. Police Quarterly. 2000; 3(4): 438. Flouri, E: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. What we have learned and what we still have not found out. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(4): 373.

Sprang G: Post-disaster stress following the Oklahoma City bombing, an examination of three community groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 1999; 14(2): 181.

Fullerton CS, Ursano RJ, Wang L: Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in disaster or rescue workers. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2004; 161(8): 1374.

Sprang G: Post-disaster stress following the Oklahoma City bombing, an examination of three community groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 1999; 14(2): 181.

Sigafoos CE: A PTSD treatment program for combat (Vietnam) veterans in prison. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 1994; 38(2): 117.

Kirz JL, Drescher KD, Klein JL, et al.: MMPI-2 Assessment of differential post-traumatic stress disorder patterns in combat veterans and sexual assault victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2001; 16(7): 620. Kozaric-Kovacic D, Breovecki A: Prevalence of psychotic comorbidity in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine., 2005; 170(3): 223-226. Sigafoos CE: A PTSD treatment program for combat (Vietnam) veterans in prison. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 1994; 38(2): 117-188.

Akbayrak MN, Olfaz O, Ozcan T, et al.: Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among military health professionals in Turkey. Military Medicine. 2005; 170(2): 125-129. Smith RP, Katz CL, Holmes A, et al.: Journal of the American Medical Association.2005; 293(1): 30. Van Patten IT, Burke TW: Critical incident stress and the child homicide investigator. Homicide Studies. 2001; 5(2): 132.

Park CL: Possibilities of the positive following violence and trauma, informing the coming decade of research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(2): 242. Flouri E: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. What we have learned and what we still have not found out. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005; 20(4): 374. Friedman MJ, Hamblen JL, Foa EB, et al.: Fighting the psychological war on terrorism. Psychiatry. 2004; 67(2): 126. Regehr, C, Hill J, Goldberg G, et al.: Postmortem Inquiries and Trauma Responses in Paramedics and Firefighters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2003; 18(6): 610.

Stein BD, Elliott, MN, Jaycox, LH, et al.: A national longitudinal study of the psychological consequences of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks: reactions, impairment, and help seeking. Psychiatry. 2004; 67(2): 112, 114.

Hyden M: I must have been an idiot to let it go on: agency and positioning in battered womens’ narratives of leaving. Feminism and Psychology. 2005; 15(2): 169-188. Wertz FJ: Phenomenological research methods for Counseling Psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 172.

Polkinghorne DE: Language and meaning: data collection in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 138.

Wertz FJ: Phenomenological research methods for Counseling Psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 175.

Polkinghorne DE: Language and meaning: data collection in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 138.

Polkinghorne DE: Language and meaning: data collection in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 139.

Hyden M: I must have been an idiot to let it go on: agency and positioning in battered womens’ narratives of leaving. Feminism and Psychology. 2005; 15(2): 174.

Polkinghorne DE: Language and meaning: data collection in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 138.

Akbayrak MN, Olfaz O, Ozcan T, et al.: Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among military health professionals in Turkey. Military Medicine. 2005; 170(2): 125-129. Wertz FJ: Phenom - enological research methods for Counseling Psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 171. Friedman MJ, Hamblen JL, Foa EB, et al.: Fighting the psychological war on terrorism. Psychiatry. 2004; 67(2): 126.

Polkinghorne DE: Language and meaning: data collection in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005; 52(2): 138.

Wertz FJ: Phenomenological research methods for Counseling Psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005: 52(2): 172.