COVID-19 racial disparities: Adding the social element to risk reduction and emergency preparedness strategies
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.0908Keywords:
coronavirus disease 2019 racial disparities, pandemic preparedness, risk reduction strategiesAbstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has changed the world in many ways. The impact on vulnerable communities has been profound and worsened living conditions for those without proper housing, a steady job, or decent pay. Those most affected by the pandemic were women, children, older adults, immigrants, and the socioeconomically disadvantaged who belonged to non-White sociocultural groups. The literature provides strong evidence that those who identified as Black, Hispanic, Native American, Pacific Islander, and Asian suffered the most, especially, during the early years of the pandemic. Using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention weekly data, this study examines standardized coefficients in a path analysis model to determine the relationships between socio-cultural identity, age, time period, and region with pandemic-related deaths. The regression model used in this study confirmed the relationship between socio-cultural identity and COVID-19 deaths. The results convey the value of strengthening the social element in risk reduction and emergency preparedness strategies to reduce public health disruptions affecting vulnerable communities during future emergencies.
References
Birkland TA: Focusing events, mobilization, and agenda setting. J Pub Pol. 1998; 18(1): 53-74.
Glauberman G, Zimet G, Michel A, et al.: Emergency preparedness is a healthcare issue: COVID-19 pandemic’s influence on attitudes and behaviors among a national sample of parents. J Pediatr Nurs. 2023; 71: 88-94. DOI: 10.1016/j.pedn.2023.04.007.
Maccaro A, Audia C, Stokes K, et al.: Pandemic preparedness: A scoping review of best and worst practices from COVID-19. Healthcare (Basel). 2023; 11(18): 2572. DOI: 10.3390/healthcare11182572.
DeSalvo K, Hughes B, Bassett M, et al.: Public health COVID-19 impact assessment: Lessons learned and compelling needs. NAM Perspect. 2021. DOI: 10.31478/202104c.
Haffajee R, Mello M: Thinking globally, acting locally—The US response to COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2020; 382(22): E75. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMp2006740.
Serchen J, Cline K, Mathew S, et al.: Preparing for future pandemics and public health emergencies: An American College of physicians policy position paper. Ann Intern Med. 2023; 176(9): 1240-1244. DOI: 10.7326/M23-0768.
Williams JH, Hooker C, Gilbert G, et al.: Disagreement among experts about public health decision making: Is it polarisation and does it matter? BMJ Glob Health. 2023; 8(3): E011182. DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2022-011182.
Paton D, Buergelt B: Risk, transformation and adaptation: Ideas for reframing approaches to disaster risk reduction. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019; 16(14): 2594. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16142594.
Sheek-Hussein M, Abu-Zidan FM, Stip E: Disaster management of the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Emerg Med. 2021; 14. DOI: 10.1186/s12245-021-00342-z.
Asadi-Aliabadi M, Tehrani-Banihashemi A, Moradi-Lakeh M: Stigma in COVID-19: A barrier to seek medical care and family support. Med J Islam Repub Iran. 2020; 34: 98. DOI: 10.34171/mjiri.34.98.
HHS: Social determinants of health. n.d. Available at https://health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-health. Accessed June 5, 2023.
CDC: NCHHSTP social determinants of health. 2019. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/socialdeterminants/faq.html. Accessed June 7, 2023.
Braveman P, Gottlieb L: The social determinants of health: It’s time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Rep. 2014; 129(Suppl. 2): 19-31. DOI: 10.1177/00333549141291S206.
Drake P, Rudowitz R: Tracking social determinants of health during the COVID-19 pandemic. KFF. 2022. Available at https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/tracking-social-determinants-of-health-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/. Accessed June 15, 2023.
Brakefield WS, Olusanya OA, White B, et al.: Social determinants and indicators of COVID-19 among marginalized communities: A scientific review and call to action for pandemic response and recovery. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2023; 17: E193. DOI: 10.1017/dmp.2022.104.
Paremoer L, Nandi S, Serag H, et al.: COVID-19 pandemic and the social determinants of health. BMJ. 2021; 372: N29. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.n129.
Gómez C, Kleinman D, Pronk N, et al.: Addressing health equity and social determinants of health through healthy people 2030. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2021; 27(Suppl. 6): S249-S257. DOI: 10.1097/PHH.0000000000001297.
Haldane V, Jung A, De Foo C, et al.: Strengthening the basics: Public health responses to prevent the next pandemic. BMJ. 2021; 375: E067510. DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2021-067510.
Wyner C: Inequities of the COVID-19 pandemic among minority populations: My family’s struggle to survive. Acad Emerg Med. 2020. DOI: 10.1111/acem.14154.
Yashadhana A, Pollard-Wharton N, Zwi A, et al.: Indigenous Australians at increased risk of COVID-19 due to existing health and socioeconomic inequities. Lancet. 2020; 1: 100007. DOI: 10.1016/j.lanwpc.2020.100007.
Barreto R: The COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing genocide of Black and Indigenous peoples in Brazil. Int J Lat Am Relig. 2020; 4(2): 417-439.
Biswas S: India coronavirus: More than half of Mumbai slum-dwellers had COVID-19. BBC. 2020. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-53576653. Accessed June 15, 2023.
PAHO: PAHO director calls to protect vulnerable groups from effects of COVID-19 pandemic. Pan American Health Organization. 2020. Available at https://www.paho.org/en/news/19-5-2020-pahodirector-calls-protect-vulnerable-groups-effects-covid-19-pandemic. Accessed June 15, 2023.
Correa-Agudelo E, Mersha T, Branscum A, et al.: Identification of vulnerable populations and areas at higher risk of COVID-19-related mortality during the early stage of the epidemic in the United States. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 18(8): 4021.
Lewis R, Martin P, Guzman B: COVID-19 and vulnerable populations. J Commun Psychol. 2022; 50(6): 2537-2541.
Weiner S: The new coronavirus affects us all. But some groups may suffer more. AAMCNEWS. 2020. Available at https://www.aamc.org/net.ws-insights/new-coronavirus-affects-us-all-somegroups-may-suffer-more. Accessed June 19, 2023.
Thobani S: The Deadly Intersections of COVID-19: Race, States, Inequalities and Global Society. Bristol: Bristol University Press, 2022.
Kingsland J: Racial minorities experience higher COVID-19-related discrimination. Medical News Today. 2020. Available at https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/racial-minoritiesexperience-higher-covid-19-related-discrimination. Accessed June 20, 2023.
Strong P: Epidemic psychology: A model. Sociol Health Illness. 1990; 12(3): 249-259.
Bennett G, Cuevas K: Why the COVID death rate in the US is so much higher than other wealthy nations. PBS News. February 2, 2022.
Mueller B, Lutz E: US has far higher covid death rate than other wealthy countries. New York Times. February 1, 2022.
Committee on Homeland Security: In Pandemic response: Confronting the unequal impacts of COVID-19: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Emergency Preparedness, Response, and Recovery, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress. Second session, July 10, 2020.
US Government Publishing Office: Confronting the coronavirus: Perspectives of the COVID 19 pandemic one year later: Hearing before the Committee on Homeland Security. House of Representatives. February 24, 2021.
Millett G, Jones A, Benkeser D, et al.: Assessing differential impacts of COVID-19 on Black communities. Ann Epidemiol. 2020; 47: 37-44. DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.05.003.
Cronin CJ, Evans WN: Excess mortality from COVID and non- COVID causes in minority populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021; 118(39): 1.
Weech-Maldonado R, Lord J, Davlyatov G, et al.: An examination of COVID-19 mortality in high-minority nursing homes. Health Serv Res. 2021; 56(S2): 88-88.
Perlstein O: Covid research inequalities: Highlighting the need for increased minority participation in clinical trials. Seton Hall Law Rev. 2021; 52(2): 545.
Wynter C: Inequities of the COVID-19 pandemic among minority populations: My family’s struggle to survive. Acad Emerg Med. 2021; 28(9): 1091-1092.
Acharya A, Kyle L, Danielli S, et al.: COVID-19 vaccinations among Black Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) groups: Learning the lessons from influenza. Int J Clin Pract. 2021; 75(10): E14641.
Doctors Without Borders: COVID-19 in New York: Vulnerable communities need urgent protection. 2020. Available at https://www.doctorswithoutborders.ca/article/covid-19-new-yorkvulnerable-communities-need-urgent-protection. Accessed June 22, 2023.
Perkin M, Heap S, Crerar-Gilbert A, et al.: Deaths in people from Black, Asian and minority ethnic communities from both COVID-19 and non-COVID causes in the first weeks of the pandemic in London: A hospital case note review. BMJ Open. 2020; 10: e040638. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040638.
Ansell D, Lightfoot LE: The Death Gap: How Inequality Kills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2021. DOI: 10.7208/9780226796857.
Cooper L: Why Are Health Disparities Everyone’s Problem? Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2021.
Sim S, Kaufman M: As CDC finds outsize COVID hospitalizations among minorities, local experts call for structural changes. Crain’s New York Busi. 2021; 37(15): 18.
Data.gov: Provisional COVID-19 deaths by HHS region, race, and age. 2023. Available at https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/provisionalweekly-deaths-by-region-race-age-997d6. Accessed June 26, 2023.
Census.gov: n.d. Available at https://www.census.gov/popclock/embed.php?component=populous. Accessed June 26, 2023.
Atalan A: Is the lockdown important to prevent the COVID-19 pandemic? Effects on psychology, environment and economy-perspective. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2020; 56: 38-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.amsu.2020.06.010.
Murphy C, Lim W, Mills C, et al.: Effectiveness of social distancing measures and lockdowns for reducing transmission of COVID-19 in non-healthcare, community-based settings. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2023; 381(2257): 20230132. DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0132.
Schneider A, Hommel G, Blettner M: Linear regression analysis: Part 14 of a series on evaluation of scientific publications. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2010; 107(44): 776-782. DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2010.0776.
Yammine E, Rammal A: Path analysis to assess socio-economic and mitigation measure determinants for daily coronavirus infections. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021; 18(19): 10071. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph181910071.
OECD: COVID-19: Protecting people and societies. OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19). 2020. Available at https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2020/03/covid-19-protecting-peopleand-societies_f3bd526d.html. Accessed June 30, 2023.
National League of Cities (NLC): Vulnerable populations. 2021. Available at https://covid19.nlc.org/resources/resources-by-topic/vulnerable-populations/. Accessed June 30, 2023.
Ethridge T: Changing the conversation. University of North Carolina, School of Government. Community Engagement Learning Exchange. 2017. Available at https://cele.sog.unc.edu/changing-theconversation/#more-1136. Accessed June 30, 2023.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright 2007-2025, Weston Medical Publishing, LLC and Journal of Emergency Management. All Rights Reserved.
